| ||||
|
| ||||
|
 |
Transcript for Lesson 2 Presentation: Overview of Accommodations and Adaptations |
 |
Two terms, "accommodations" and "adaptations," are used in this module to distinguish types of modifications that students may need. These terms may have different interpretations according to a specific state or school system; therefore, you are advised to consult state or local resources to determine the interpretation for these terms. You may also find that different terms, such as "modifications," are used by school systems as a synonym for accommodations, or "modifications" mean something different than "accommodations." Again, seek clarity on how terms are used, because interpretations and applications can vary across a state or from state to state. For consistency within this module, the two terms "accommodations" and "adaptations"--are used. An accommodation refers to learners receiving the same content and the same difficulty of curriculum with flexibility of instruction and assessment. An adaptation refers to learners who receive the same content as other students but with a minor change in difficulty level of curriculum with flexibility of instruction and assessment. Switlick (1997) defines accommodations as instructional items that do not change the content or the difficulty level of the curriculum. For example, a student with learning disabilities who has difficulty with written language may use assistive technology, such as a computer, when the social studies instructional outcome is to compare and contrast the economic development and impact of four countries. The outcome for the student remains the same as for other students; however, using the computer enables the student to perform in a way that minimizes the impact of the student’s disability. In referring to accommodations on state- or district-wide assessments, Tindal and Fuchs (2000) define a testing accommodation as a change that: (a) does not alter the construct or essence of what is being tested; (b) is based on individual student’s need; and (c) is effective for students who need the change but is not effective for others. Because this module will focus on accommodations within classroom-based instruction and assessment, Tindal and Fuch’s criteria for (a) and (b) are used. In addition, the last criteria--effective for one student but not others--is expanded. For example, some accommodations discussed in this module are also beneficial for students who do not have a disability label, while other accommodations may be necessary and individualized for a specific student with mild disabilities. For the social studies outcome illustrated above, an adaptation for a particular learner might be that she describes the economic factors that impact how one country uses its resources. Note that the adaptation stays within the same content area as for other students in the class, but there is a minor change in the difficulty level for this student. General educators may be familiar with the terms "multilevel" or "tiered" instruction to refer to differentiated outcomes for diverse learners in their classrooms. These terms are typically used as synonyms, and imply that within a general education setting, some learners may be working on different levels (i.e., multilevel) of the curriculum, or that the hierarchy of the content (i.e., the tiers) are varied for learners (Tomlinson, 1995). These terms can also be used to depict accommodations or adaptations for learners with mild disabilities. Consequently, if you are already familiar with those terms and using multilevel or tiered instructional techniques, you may realize that the accommodations or adaptations required for some learners with disabilities are not so different from what you already do. |
 |
"Parallel curriculum" is another term often used in this connection. A parallel curriculum choice indicates that a student may be working within a general education setting with major changes in the difficulty level of the content (Switlick, 1997). For example, a student with mild mental retardation may be receiving differentiated instruction within a sixth-grade geometry class in which most students are working on calculating area and perimeter. The student with mild mental retardation may also be working on geometry but focused on measurement of items to the nearest inch.
King-Sears (1997) extends Switlick’s (1997) interpretations of the terms "adaptations" and "parallel" to conceptualize them for learners who are labeled gifted and talented. Gifted and talented students are frequently provided enrichment or accelerated curriculum or choices, either within a typical course or as a separate course. Enrichment curriculum may be considered an adaptation for some learners when the difficulty level changes in a minor way. That is, the content is the same as what all students in the class are learning (e.g., social studies), but there are minor changes in the difficulty level of the content. For example, learners who are gifted and talented analyze economic changes and their causes for several countries to determine cause-effect relationships, while most students are focused on one country. Similarly, an accelerated curriculum for some learners in social studies might be used. Consider that most students are distinguishing the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of federal government. Other learners may be accelerating that learning outcome to include how laws are made and enacted from the federal to the state to the local level; this is a major change in the difficulty level from what most learners are expected to do. Yet another term, "overlapping curriculum," can apply for learners who may be in general education classrooms when they are working on completely different curriculum content than that of the other students (Giangreco, Cloninger, & Iverson, 1993; Switlick, 1997). An example of overlapping curriculum is when a learner is receiving instruction during science in a general education setting; the learner’s focus is on following directions, increasing language or social skills, or participating in science experiments to identify objects (i.e. not to learn the science outcome, but to increase vocabulary). An excellent model of a general educator using overlapping curriculum for learners with disabilities occurs when a variety of instructional activities, hands-on learning, or cooperative techniques are regularly used as part of instruction. In such environments, a student with moderate mental retardation, for example, may thrive within the science classroom in a natural way that focuses on his/her IEP content (e.g., a functional life skills curriculum) rather than the science curriculum. Most secondary general educators are not using overlapping curriculum choices, so the term is mentioned in this module to increase awareness and provide information, but the module’s focus is on accommodations and adaptations. One possible exception for secondary teachers regarding the use of overlapping curriculum is when a student with emotional disturbance is within a general education setting with a primary focus on social skills and a secondary focus on curriculum. Such distinctions and curricular directions should be evident on that student's IEP, which all general educators must be familiar with. For purposes of this module, the focus is on the academic applications for accommodations and adaptations. (For more information on overlapping curriculum choices, readers are referred to Switlick, 1997; Giangreco et al., 1993; or Hlass, Jorden, Lightner, and Nagle, 1995.) In summary, definitions are provided for accommodations and adaptations for learners with mild disabilities. Note that other terms may be used in your school system, so you should check to identify what terms and interpretations are used in your environment. In order to maintain consistency in terminology throughout this module, the critical aspects of accommodations and adaptations are described (e.g., what these terms mean, whom they are for, how they can be carried out). The most important aspect of using accommodations and adaptations is that they match and challenge the learners with mild disabilities. The next section will describe characteristics of learners with mild disabilities. |
 |
Within a typical middle or high school classroom, there is variation in the learners’ proficiency with the particular content as well as their individualized learning styles and starting points for instruction. For example, a student who has a learning disability in reading may have significant problems reading the textbook. Or a student, who is an English language learner, may have difficulty acquiring the vocabulary of instruction. Even students who are considered "average" have learning style preferences and enter their courses at different levels of achievement. Although they are capable of attaining the same or similar academic goals as their peers, students with emotional disturbance may exhibit mental health issues that interfere with their learning. Other students may have different labels (e.g., gifted and talented) or no labels at all. These students may be at-risk for school failure due to a variety of factors (e.g., poor retention of skills from previous years of school, transient family situations). It is important to remember that a label for a student may assist with identifying and describing possible learning and motivational characteristics, but within a category of labels, individual student characteristics may vary greatly. |
 |
Learning disability. Students who have a learning disability (LD) may have problems receiving, remembering, and/or expressing information in traditional auditory or visual formats. The federal definition of a learning disability (from the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, or IDEA ‘97) is:
a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not apply to children who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, or emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (20 U.S.C., section 300.7(b)(10)).Characteristics may vary among students with learning disabilities. One student with a learning disability may have problems with reading comprehension, spoken language, and written language. Problems receiving and understanding or processing auditory information may be apparent. At first, a teacher may not understand why a student who appears to hear well has difficulty following verbal information, yet this is a common characteristic of students with learning disabilities, or LD. Another student with LD may have mathematical calculation difficulties, but have no problem with reasoning. Yet another student's LD may manifest itself in poor reasoning skills or difficulty solving problems. Organizational difficulties are often apparent for students with LD. For example, some parents and teachers note that a student's notebook is disorganized, or that the student has difficulty finding information received in class. Teachers should keep in mind that for each student who is labeled as LD, there is evidence that he or she has average or above-average capabilities in some areas. There is a discrepancy among skills the student with LD can do, which is what confounds some individuals, including family members, who perceive the student is just being lazy, unmotivated, or intentionally not trying. Moreover, when teachers use instructional techniques that assist these students in compensating for their disability, there is evidence that students with LD can learn the same information as their peers without LD. (e.g., Morocco, Hindin, Mata-Aguilar, & Clark-Chiarelli, 2001; Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000; Weinstein, 1996). The people who may use these techniques include the general educator as primary instructor, the special educator as primary instructor, general educators and special educators as co-instructors, and the students as instructors (e.g., peer tutoring). The place of instruction may be either the general education setting or a special education setting. In this module, most content pertains to techniques that can be used in secondary general education settings with the general educator as the primary instructor. These instructional techniques are identified throughout this module and described in more depth in subsequent module lessons. In describing the complexity of middle and high school environments, DeBettencourt and Allen (1999) point out that students with learning disabilities, who have difficulty processing information, may need explicit instruction in strategies for success and study skills. Some students may have problems reading texts written at or above grade level, taking notes, completing homework assignments, or organizing their workload for each class. Although many middle and high school students mastered such skills in elementary grades, some did not and therefore require instruction in how to perform these tasks. Moreover, while many students, who need instruction in strategies and study skills, are capable of mastering the same information as other students, they do not yet have the processes for success for secondary settings. Two items benefit students here. First, their teachers are able to build in the strategy and study skills instruction; and second, their teachers are fluent and flexible in how they teach and how students can show what they know. Some students with learning disabilities have memory or retention problems. Consequently, the amount of information within the curriculum to be mastered may seem prohibitive. However, when teachers strategically select what to teach and how to teach critical information, they can minimize the amount of information students with learning disabilities must know. Moreover, teachers can do this in a way that does not compromise the amount of information students with LD are responsible for learning, remembering, and using. For example, Mercer, Jordan, and Miller (1996) found that teachers who explicitly teach the commutative property when teaching basic multiplication facts can reduce by half the number of facts students learn. Please refer to Handout #1, which summarizes the definition of LD and provides helpful information for teachers as well as additional resources that teachers can access. |
 |
Emotional disturbance. Students who have the label of emotional disturbance, or ED, are students with mental health issues that interfere in a significant way with their learning. The federal definition of emotional disturbance (from IDEA ’97) is:
(i) The term means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.All students display these characteristics at some point; it is the frequency, intensity, and duration of these behaviors over long periods of time that distinguish "typical" students from those who have the label of emotional disturbance. This module addresses learning difficulties with academics, which is the primary characteristic of students with emotional disturbance. For example, Penno, Frank, and Wacker (2000) found that when appropriate instructional accommodations were used with adolescents with emotional disturbance, or ED, their academic productivity and accuracy increased, and their behavior problems were reduced during classes that used instructional accommodations. Moreover, general educators’ involvement with students who have ED is essential for improving the students’ academic skills and best preparing them to successfully meet academic demands (Farmer, Quinn, Hussey, & Holahan, 2001). Other appropriate accommodations or instructional foci for students with ED include behavior modification systems, social skills training, and crisis intervention, but those topics are beyond the scope of what can be adequately covered in this module. Readers are referred to the Support-level Research page for more information about such topics (e.g., Rosenberg, Wilson, Maheady, & Sindelar, 1996). Because students with ED also have academic difficulties, may have the intellectual capacity to achieve to the same level as peers, and may have their emotional difficulties ameliorated when they are achieving in school, those areas are the focus of this module. Please refer to Handout #2, which summarizes the definition of ED and provides helpful information for teachers as well as additional resources that teachers can access. |
 |
Attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Some students display poor attention, impulsivity, and hyperactive behaviors that are developmentally inappropriate and chronic. These are characteristics of students who have attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Students may have difficulty focusing on lessons, sustaining focus, and transitioning focus from one topic or lesson to another. They may appear not to be listening or not paying attention to the teacher or instructional cues, and they may have difficulty following through on instructions, homework, or other assignments. Attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention deficit hyeractivity disorder (ADHD) may occur concurrent with a learning disability or emotional disturbance, and if the problems are severe enough, the student may be eligible for special education services under the LD (learning disability) or ED (emotional disturbance) label of IDEA ’97. If the primary disability category is not LD or ED, it is also possible that a student with severe problems with attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may be found eligible for the IDEA ’97 disability category of other health impaired. The school’s assessment team, along with the parents and possibly medical personnel, reviews assessment information to make the eligibility decisions for any of these disability categories. It is possible that a student with ADD or ADHD may not be identified until middle or high school years. It is also possible that the disability is not severe enough to qualify under IDEA ’97 for special education services and accommodations. However, some students do qualify for accommodations under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and a plan called a Section 504 plan is written for them. Please refer to Handout #3, which summarizes the definition of ADHD and provides helpful information for teachers as well as additional resources that teachers can access.
Sources for identifying students who require accommodations or adaptations are described next. |
 |
To determine which students require accommodations and adaptations, teachers are guided by two legal sources: the Individualized Education Program (IEP) or a Section 504 plan (from the Rehabilitation Act of 1973). General educators may not realize at the classroom level the differences between these two sources because, regardless of the source, the instructional implications for students must be followed. |
 |
IEP. One source for identifying students who require accommodations or adaptations is the IEP. Briefly, an IEP is developed for students after they are determined eligible for special education services using eligibility criteria from IDEA ’97. For this module, the typical student labels for mild disabilities are learning disabilities and emotional disturbance; attention deficit disorder may also be considered. Eligibility criteria are based on the adverse effect the disability has on the student’s educational performance. To what degree an adverse effect is evident can be open to interpretation by the school team, which follows the guidelines for the school system and state for determining eligibility.
An IEP is a written plan, which details annual goals and short-term objectives. It is developed by a team of professionals, parents, and sometimes the student. The IEP must note how the student will "access the general education curriculum" and what types of supplementary aids and services, accommodations, and special education services the student needs. Although the format and structure of an IEP varies from state to state and for school systems within the state, the content of the IEP is what informs educators about a student’s specific strengths, needs, and specialized services. Each general educator, who teaches a student with an IEP, must be aware of and provide for the accommodations and/or other types of supplementary aids and services that are listed on the IEP. Two websites, the California Department of Education and New York State, which are listed on the Readings page for this lesson, provide two examples of IEPs. You may find it helpful to review the IEP format and guidelines for your state or school system to increase your familiarity with the content and process. In particular, focus on how IEP content and process impact your involvement and instruction as a general educator. |
 |
Section 504 plan. Another source for identifying students who require accommodations is a Section 504 plan. Less stringent criteria for a student having a disability is used in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504. According to the language in Section 504, a student may be eligible if he or she has a physical or mental disability that substantially limits a major life activity, such as learning. Again, as for the IEP, the interpretation of how much is substantial is provided by guidelines for the state and local school system. For one school system’s information about Section 504 and a Section 504 plan, please refer to the website for the Cobb County Public School, which is listed on the Readings page for this lesson.
Although the eligibility criteria for a student may be less stringent than that required for IDEA, the content informs educators about necessary accommodations for a student. For example, some students may be found eligible for Section 504 accommodations because they have attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These students’ discrepancies between achievement and potential may not be so severe that they meet eligibility criteria for one of the IDEA ’97 disability categories, but the student may have sufficient deficits so that they are eligible for Section 504 plan accommodations. Schools should have some type of communication system in place to inform teachers which students require accommodations, regardless of whether the source is an IEP or a Section 504 plan. If you are not sure whether you are teaching students who require accommodations, you can consult with special educators and/or guidance counselors at your school. All students have school files or folders; students with IEPs and Section 504 plans probably also have confidential files that contain assessments and previous reports, including a psychological report, detailing the decision-making process that led to a particular student’s eligibility for receiving accommodations. Some teachers find it helpful to organize by class those students who require accommodations and adaptations. |
 |
Conclusion
In summary, the characteristics of learners with mild disabilities can vary greatly, making it essential that teachers are familiar with an individual student’s requirements for accommodations or adaptations within the general education curriculum. Sources for identifying an individual student’s requirements are found in IEPs or Section 504 plans. The next lesson describes traditional interpretations and applications of accommodations and adaptations. |
   |
